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5.
Air
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Executive summary
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Pressures: emissions
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5.2.1
Electricity and fuel production
5.2.2
Transportation
5.2.3
Industrial
5.2.4
Residential and commercial
5.2.5
Waste management
5.2.6
Agricultural and forestry
5.2.7
Natural emissions and land-use change
5.3
State: atmospheric composition and climate
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5.3.1
Air pollution: urban to global scales
5.3.2
Persistent bioaccumulative toxic substances
5.3.3
Stratospheric O
3
and ultra-violet radiation
5.3.4
Climate change
5.4
Impacts
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5.4.1
Human health
5.4.2
Food security
5.4.3
Ecosystems
5.4.4
Social well-being
5.5
Response: policies and governance
Facts & figures
6.
Biodiversity
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Executive summary
6.1
Introduction
6.2
Further assessments since the fifth Global Environmental Outlook (GEO-5)
6.3
Drivers
6.4
Pressures
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6.4.1
Land-use change and habitat loss
6.4.2
Invasive species
6.4.3
Pollution
6.4.4
Overexploitation
6.4.5
Climatic warming and extreme events
6.5
Global state and trends of biodiversity
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6.5.1
State and trends in genetic diversity
6.5.2
Global state and trends in species
6.5.3
Global state and trends in ecosystems
6.6
Impacts on the world’s biomes
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6.6.1
Oceans and coasts
6.6.2
Freshwater
6.6.3
Grasslands
6.6.4
Agricultural landscapes
6.6.5
Drylands
6.6.6
Forests
6.6.7
Mountains
6.6.8
Polar regions
6.7
Responses
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6.7.1
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
6.7.2
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)
6.7.3
Protected areas
6.7.4
Other approaches
6.8
Conclusion
Facts & figures
9.
Freshwater
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Executive summary
9.1
Introduction and priority issues
9.2
Pressures on freshwater
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9.2.1
Climate change
9.3
Water and land use
9.4
Global state and trends of freshwater
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9.4.1
Water quantity
9.4.2
Water withdrawals
9.4.3
Glacial retreat
9.4.4
Water scarcity
9.5
Water quality
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9.5.1
Pathogens
9.5.2
Nutrients
9.5.3
Sediments
9.5.4
Organic pollutants
9.5.5
Heavy metals
9.5.6
Salinity
9.5.7
Contaminants of emerging concern
9.5.8
Other water quality concerns
9.6
Freshwater ecosystems
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9.6.1
Continuing loss of wetlands
9.6.2
Biodiversity loss
9.7
Water infrastructure
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9.7.1
Drinking water supply: treatment and distribution
9.7.2
Sanitation and wastewater treatment
9.7.3
Dams and reservoirs for water storage and hydroelectric power
9.8
Impacts
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9.8.1
Human health
9.8.2
Food security
9.8.3
Human safety and security
9.9
Policy responses
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9.9.1
Expanding access to safe drinking water and sanitation (SDG Targets 6.1 and 6.2)
9.9.2
Improving water quality (SDG Targets 6.3 and 15.1)
9.9.3
Water-use efficiency and responses to water scarcity (SDG target 6.4)
9.9.4
Water governance (SDG Target 6.5)
9.9.5
Surface water-groundwater conjunctive management
9.9.6
Protecting and restoring water ecosystems (SDG target 6.6)
9.10
Conclusions
Facts & figures
Air
Chapter 5
Facts & figures
Figures:
5.1
Primary linkages between pressures, state and impacts of atmospheric change
5.2
Linkages between changes in atmospheric composition and achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals
5.3
Annual emission trends from 1990 to 2019 in kilotons by pollutant, region and sector
5.4
Global fuel shares of electricity generation in 2015
1
5.5
World petroleum refinery output by-product (million tons)
5.6
World electricity generation by fuel (terawatt hours)
1
5.7
Annual average PM
2.5
concentrations in 2016 compared with the WHO Air Quality guideline and interim targets
5.8
Seasonal average population-weighted O
3
concentration in 2016 for season with maximum ozone levels by country
5.9
Annual average PM10 levels for megacities of more than 14 million inhabitants with available data for the period 2011-2015
5.10
Model estimates of the sources of PM
2.5
observed in several cities in each of three countries shows local PM
2.5
concentrations are strongly influenced by secondary particles from transboundary sources. The source of emissions is divided into natural, international (emitted outside the country), national (emitted within the country but outside the urban area), urban (emitted within the city) and street (emitted within the immediate vicinity of the observation) and interim targets
5.11
The Dust Belt
5.12
Global distribution of annual mean gaseous elemental mercury concentration in near-surface air (top) and wet-deposition flux (bottom) in 2015 simulated by a model ensemble
5.13
Vertical profiles of annual mean O
3
trends over 35°-60°N averaged over all available observations (black) for the periods of stratospheric ODS decline (left) and ODS increase (right), with the corresponding modelled trends for ODS changes only (red), GHG changes only (blue) and both together (grey)
5.14
Deaths per 100,000 people in 2016 attributable to ambient PM
2.5
air pollution; age-standardized data
5.15
Percentage of PM2.5 related deaths in a region indicated by the column due to (a) emissions produced or (b) goods and services consumed in the region indicated by the row
5.16
Map of groupings of selected regional multilateral air pollution agreements
Tables:
5.1
Some atmospheric chemical components
5.2
Global environmental agreements relevant to climate change, stratospheric O
3
depletion and PBTs
5.3
WHO Air Quality Guidelines and Interim Targets
Boxes:
5.1
UNEA 3/8 Resolution
◂
5.5
Response: policies and governance
6
Biodiversity ▸
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